History

The press in Maharashtra has a rich and vibrant history, playing a pivotal role in social reform, political awakening, and the development of Marathi language and literature. Its origins can be traced back to the early 19th century, witnessing significant growth through various phases.

Origin and Early Growth (19th Century)

The foundation of Marathi journalism was laid in the early 19th century, primarily driven by social reformers and intellectuals.

• 1832: Darpan - Widely regarded as the first Marathi newspaper, Darpan was started by Balshastri Jambhekar in Mumbai. He is often called the "Father of Marathi Journalism." Darpan was a bilingual weekly (Marathi and English) that aimed to inform the public about current affairs, social issues, and government policies.
• 1840: Digdarshan - Jambhekar also launched Digdarshan, a Marathi monthly that focused on promoting scientific knowledge, history, and literature among the masses.
• 1841: Mumbai Akhbar - Another early Marathi newspaper, though short-lived, it indicated the nascent stages of public interest in printed news.
• Missionary Influence: Christian missionaries played a significant role in introducing printing technology and publishing periodicals like Dnyanoday (1842), which, while serving missionary goals, also contributed to Marathi prose and public discourse.
• 1840s-1860s: Other Pioneers -
  • Prabhakar (1841) by Bhau Mahajan, famous for publishing Lokhitwadi Gopal Hari Deshmukh's influential 'Shatapatre' (100 letters) on social reform.
  • Dnyan Prakash (1849), started in Pune, became a daily in 1904, advocating for social and political reforms.
  • Indu Prakash (1862), edited by M.G. Ranade and N.M. Lokhande, focused on social reform and workers' rights.
• Voice of Reformers: The press became a crucial tool for social reformers.
  • Jyotirao Phule's movement found expression through periodicals like Deenbandhu (1877), started by Krishnarao Bhalekar, which highlighted the issues of peasants and marginalized communities.
  • Gopal Ganesh Agarkar, through Sudharak (1888), championed radical social reforms.

Rise of Nationalist Press (Late 19th - Early 20th Century)

The late 19th century marked a significant shift with the emergence of a strong nationalist press, instrumental in India's freedom struggle.

• Bal Gangadhar Tilak: The most influential figure of this era, Tilak started Kesari (Marathi, 1881) and Mahratta (English, 1881). These newspapers became powerful vehicles for nationalist ideology, criticizing British policies, and mobilizing public opinion. Tilak's fiery editorials often led to sedition charges but cemented his position as a national leader and elevated the status of journalism.
• Variety of Voices: The press diversified, reflecting various political viewpoints from moderates to extremists, contributing to widespread political awareness.

Post-Independence and Modern Growth

After India gained independence, the press in Maharashtra continued its growth, adapting to new political and social landscapes.

• Consolidation and Expansion: Major newspaper houses emerged and consolidated, establishing their reach across the state.
  • Newspapers like Maharashtra Times (1962) by The Times Group, Loksatta (1948) by The Indian Express Group, and Sakal (1932) by the Sakal Group became leading Marathi dailies.
  • Lokmat (1918), founded by Balasaheb Bangar, gained immense popularity and became the highest-circulated Marathi daily.
• Diversification: The print media expanded to include a wide array of magazines, specialized journals, and regional editions, catering to diverse interests and local news.
• Technological Advancement: The advent of modern printing technologies, improved distribution networks, and later, the digital revolution, further propelled the growth and reach of the press.
• Current Scenario: Maharashtra boasts a robust and competitive media landscape with several leading Marathi dailies, English newspapers (like The Times of India, The Indian Express, Hindustan Times), and a strong presence of digital news platforms. The press continues to play a vital role in public discourse, governance, and cultural life.

In essence, the press in Maharashtra evolved from a nascent medium for social reform to a powerful tool for nationalist awakening, and finally to a diverse and dynamic industry that informs, influences, and reflects the multifaceted identity of the state.

In ancient times, before the advent of standardized measuring systems like the metric or imperial units, people primarily relied on readily available and relatable objects for measuring lengths. These often included parts of the human body or natural phenomena, leading to a diverse array of measurement units across different cultures and regions.

Here are some common methods and units used:

• Body Parts:
  • Digit or Finger: The width of a finger was one of the smallest units, often serving as a foundational measure.
  • Palm or Handbreadth: Equivalent to the width of a hand across the knuckles, typically four digits. In some cultures, a "hand" is still used to measure the height of horses.
  • Foot: The length of a human foot. This varied significantly depending on the individual and culture, but was a widespread unit.
  • Cubit: One of the most important ancient units, representing the length from the elbow to the tip of the middle finger. Cubits varied greatly; for instance, the Egyptian royal cubit was approximately 52.3 cm (20.6 inches), while others were shorter.
  • Pace or Step: The length of a single step. A "double pace" or "stride" was also used, representing two steps (when the same foot touched the ground again).
  • Fathom: The length of a man's outstretched arms from fingertip to fingertip, primarily used for measuring depths of water or ropes.
• Other Practical Units:
  • Link or Chain: In some agricultural contexts, chains of a certain length were used to measure land.
  • Stade or Stadium: Originally the length of a Greek athletic track, about 185 to 192 meters (607 to 630 feet). It was used for longer distances.
  • Mile: The Roman mile, or mille passus, meaning "a thousand paces," was approximately 1,478 meters (4,850 feet) or 1.478 km.
  • Day's Journey: For very long distances, the distance a person or group could travel in a day was used, though this was highly variable based on terrain, load, and mode of travel.

The inherent problem with body-part measurements was their inconsistency from person to person. To address this, some ancient civilizations developed rudimentary standardization. For example, the Egyptians had a "royal cubit" standard that was maintained and reproduced, often carved into stone or made of wood, to ensure consistency in large construction projects like the pyramids. Similarly, the Romans had standards for their foot and mile. Despite these efforts, local variations persisted for a long time, making trade and large-scale projects challenging without clear agreements on the units being used.

Bhagat Singh was known to be an intelligent and diligent student, with a particular interest in literature, history, and political science. While detailed academic report cards from his time are not widely available, historical accounts and his own writings suggest a strong intellectual curiosity and academic aptitude.

• He attended the Dayanand Anglo-Vedic High School in Lahore and later joined the National College, Lahore, which was founded by Lala Lajpat Rai. This institution focused on promoting Indian culture and self-reliance, offering an alternative to British-controlled schools.

• At National College, he excelled in his studies, particularly in subjects that fostered his nationalist and revolutionary ideals. He was deeply influenced by revolutionary thinkers and writers, and spent a significant amount of his time reading and studying their works.

• He was known for his extensive reading habits, devouring books on socialism, communism, history, and philosophy. This self-study supplemented his formal education and shaped his political ideology.

• Bhagat Singh's intellectual prowess is evident in his writings, essays, and court statements, which display a profound understanding of political theory, economics, and history, indicating a sharp and analytical mind developed through dedicated study.

In essence, Bhagat Singh was not just academically proficient but also a voracious reader and a critical thinker whose studies went far beyond the classroom curriculum, deeply influencing his revolutionary path.

Regarding your question about "Sundar," there is no widely known historical figure named Sundar who was killed alongside Bhagat Singh or Batukeshwar Dutt. Bhagat Singh was executed along with his comrades Sukhdev Thapar and Shivaram Rajguru.

Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt were involved in significant acts of protest against British rule in India:

• Bhagat Singh was executed (hanged) by the British colonial government on March 23, 1931, in Lahore. He, along with Sukhdev and Rajguru, was convicted in the Lahore Conspiracy Case. The primary charges leading to his death sentence were:
  • The assassination of British police officer John P. Saunders in December 1928. This act was carried out in retaliation for the death of Lala Lajpat Rai, who succumbed to injuries sustained during a police lathi-charge.
  • The bombing of the Central Legislative Assembly in Delhi on April 8, 1929. This act was intended as a protest to "make the deaf hear" and not to cause casualties.
• Batukeshwar Dutt was not killed. He was arrested along with Bhagat Singh after the Central Legislative Assembly bombing in April 1929. While Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, and Rajguru were sentenced to death for the Saunders murder, Batukeshwar Dutt was sentenced to transportation for life for his role in the Assembly bombing case. He suffered from tuberculosis during his imprisonment and was eventually released in 1937. He passed away in 1965.

Their actions and trials galvanized the Indian independence movement and cemented their status as iconic revolutionaries.

Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt exploded a bomb in the Central Legislative Assembly in Delhi on April 8, 1929, for several key reasons:

• To protest oppressive laws: They aimed to protest against the introduction of two controversial bills by the British government:
  • The Public Safety Bill: This bill aimed to give the government extensive powers to deport foreigners suspected of involvement in revolutionary activities, particularly targeting communist activists.
  • The Trade Disputes Bill: This bill sought to make it illegal for workers to strike, effectively curbing the rights of laborers and trade unions.
• To "make the deaf hear": Bhagat Singh famously stated that their intention was not to kill or injure, but "to make the deaf hear." They felt that the British government was ignoring the pleas and demands of the Indian people for self-rule and justice. The bombing was a dramatic act designed to draw widespread attention to the Indian independence movement and the injustices perpetrated by the colonial regime.
• To spread revolutionary ideas: They also used the opportunity to throw leaflets that outlined their revolutionary philosophy and called for an end to British rule. Their goal was to inspire other Indians and create a mass movement.
• Symbolic act, not mass casualty: The bombs were deliberately designed to be low-intensity, intended to create noise and smoke rather than cause fatalities or serious injuries. They purposefully threw them in an unoccupied area of the assembly and readily surrendered afterward, making it clear their objective was to send a message, not to commit terrorism.

After the bombing, they raised slogans like "Inquilab Zindabad!" (Long Live Revolution!) and allowed themselves to be arrested, using their subsequent trial as a platform to articulate their political views and revolutionary ideals to a wider audience.

Aristomenes was a legendary hero of Messenia who played a pivotal role in the Second Messenian War against Sparta, traditionally dated to the 7th century BCE. He is celebrated for his extraordinary bravery, cunning, and his leadership in the Messenian struggle for independence from Spartan domination.

According to ancient accounts, Aristomenes repeatedly led his people in fierce battles against the powerful Spartan army. He was known for his audacious raids into Spartan territory and his remarkable ability to escape capture, even from seemingly impossible situations. His exploits became the subject of numerous legends, portraying him as a figure of almost mythical strength and resourcefulness.

Despite his heroic efforts, Messenia ultimately fell to Sparta. However, Aristomenes' legacy endured as a powerful symbol of Messenian resistance and a champion of freedom against overwhelming odds. He is revered in Greek history as one of the most celebrated figures in the fight against Spartan hegemony.

Historical sources do not definitively state whether Mata Tripta, Guru Nanak's mother, was formally educated or illiterate. There is a lack of specific records detailing the educational background of women during that era in the region where she lived.

Therefore, it is impossible to provide a certain answer based on available historical information.