1. The Enlightenment (18th Century and its Influence):

• Emphasis on Reason and Science: The Enlightenment championed reason, logic, and scientific methods as ways to understand the world, challenging traditional authority and religious dogma. This encouraged thinkers to apply scientific principles to the study of society.
• Individualism and Human Rights: Enlightenment thinkers emphasized the importance of individual rights and freedoms. This focus on the individual and their relationship to society prompted questions about social order and the role of government.
• Belief in Progress: The Enlightenment fostered a belief in progress and the perfectibility of society through reason and reform. This inspired efforts to understand and improve social conditions.

2. The French Revolution (1789-1799):

• Social Upheaval and Change: The French Revolution caused immense social and political upheaval, challenging the old order and raising fundamental questions about the nature of society, power, and authority.
• New Social Ideals: The revolution introduced new ideals such as liberty, equality, and fraternity, which sparked debates about social justice and the organization of society.
• Need for Social Order: The chaos and instability of the revolution led to a desire to understand the forces that hold society together and to find ways to restore social order.

3. The Industrial Revolution (Late 18th and 19th Centuries):

• Social and Economic Transformation: The Industrial Revolution brought about unprecedented social and economic changes, including urbanization, the rise of factories, new forms of labor, and increased social inequality.
• New Social Problems: Industrialization created new social problems such as poverty, crime, pollution, and alienation. These problems demanded attention and analysis.
• Focus on Social Structures: The Industrial Revolution highlighted the importance of social structures and institutions in shaping individual lives and social outcomes.

4. The Rise of Science:

• Positivism: Auguste Comte, considered the "father of sociology," advocated for a positivist approach to studying society. Positivism emphasizes the use of scientific methods, observation, and empirical evidence to understand social phenomena.
• Influence of Natural Sciences: The success of the natural sciences in explaining the physical world inspired thinkers to apply similar methods to the study of society.
• Emphasis on Empirical Research: Early sociologists sought to develop objective and systematic methods for studying social behavior and social structures.

5. Intellectual Reactions to Social Change:

• Conservatism: Some thinkers, reacting to the radical changes brought about by the French Revolution and the Industrial Revolution, emphasized the importance of tradition, social order, and social hierarchy.
• Liberalism: Others embraced the ideals of individual liberty, limited government, and free markets, advocating for reforms to address social problems while preserving individual freedoms.
• Socialism: Socialist thinkers criticized the inequalities and injustices of capitalism, advocating for collective ownership and control of the means of production to create a more egalitarian society.